The First World War 1914-18

Introduction

The First World War, which began in 1914, was one of the most devastating conflicts in human history. Understanding its causes is essential for IGCSE History students. The war resulted from a complex mixture of long-term and short-term factors that created a volatile situation in Europe.

Long-Term Causes

The Alliance System

By 1914, Europe was divided into two major alliance systems. The Triple Alliance consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, while the Triple Entente included Britain, France, and Russia. These alliances were intended to provide security, but they also meant that a conflict between two countries could quickly involve multiple nations.

The alliance system created a rigid diplomatic framework that reduced flexibility in international relations. When one country was threatened, its allies were obligated to provide support, turning local disputes into wider conflicts.

Militarism

European powers engaged in an arms race, particularly between Britain and Germany in naval construction. Military leaders gained significant influence in government decision-making. Countries developed detailed war plans, such as Germany's Schlieffen Plan, which assumed war was inevitable and shaped strategic thinking.

Military spending increased dramatically in the years before 1914. This buildup created a climate where military solutions were seen as viable options for resolving international disputes.

Imperialism

Competition for colonies and resources created tensions between European powers. The scramble for Africa and disputes over territories in the Balkans and elsewhere generated rivalries. Germany, having unified later than other powers, felt excluded from imperial gains and sought to challenge the established order.

Colonial disputes brought European powers into conflict in distant parts of the world, increasing overall tensions and creating a sense of competition and mistrust.

Nationalism

Nationalist movements threatened multi-ethnic empires, particularly Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. In the Balkans, Slavic nationalism created instability as Serbia sought to unite South Slavic peoples, threatening Austro-Hungarian territorial integrity.

Nationalist sentiment also fueled competition between major powers, with each country believing in its cultural superiority and destiny. This made compromise more difficult and heightened tensions.

Short-Term Causes

The Moroccan Crises

Two crises in Morocco (1905 and 1911) heightened tensions between Germany and France. Germany challenged French influence in Morocco, testing the strength of the Entente Cordiale between France and Britain. These crises demonstrated the fragility of European peace and the willingness of powers to risk war over colonial issues.

The Balkan Wars (1912-1913)

The Balkan Wars destabilized Southeast Europe and increased tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. Serbia emerged strengthened from these conflicts, alarming Austria-Hungary, which saw Serbian nationalism as an existential threat.

The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist. This event triggered a chain reaction that led to war.

Austria-Hungary, with German support (the "blank check"), issued an ultimatum to Serbia with deliberately harsh demands. When Serbia's response was deemed unsatisfactory, Austria-Hungary declared war on 28 July 1914.

The July Crisis

The period between the assassination and the outbreak of general war is known as the July Crisis. The alliance system transformed a regional conflict into a continental war. Russia mobilized to support Serbia, Germany declared war on Russia and France, and Britain entered the war when Germany invaded Belgium.

Each power believed the others were bluffing and that their own position was defensive. Miscalculation, rigid military timetables, and the alliance system all contributed to the escalation.

Historical Debate

Historians continue to debate the relative importance of different causes. Some emphasize the alliance system and military planning, while others focus on nationalism or German ambitions. The Fischer Thesis argues that Germany deliberately sought war, while other interpretations emphasize systemic factors and collective responsibility.

Exam Approach

When answering questions on the causes of WWI, students should:

• Distinguish between long-term and short-term causes
• Explain how different factors interrelated
• Provide specific examples to support arguments
• Consider different historical interpretations
• Make clear judgments about the relative significance of different causes

Key Points

• The First World War resulted from both long-term structural factors and short-term triggers
• The alliance system, militarism, imperialism, and nationalism created a volatile European situation
• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggered the July Crisis
• The rigid alliance system and military timetables escalated a regional conflict into a general European war
• Understanding multiple causation is essential for analyzing the outbreak of war